Sexual Harassment and Abuse among Adolescent Elite athletes, Recreational athletes, and Reference students: A prospective cohort study among high school students in Norway

Abstract

Background: All athletes have the right to participate in “safe sport”. Although sports participation is associated with many health benefits, the sport context also suffers from negative experiences like sexual harassment and abuse (SHA). Adolescence is considered a vulnerable period for experiencing SHA and elite athletes have been highlighted as a risk group. Different definitions and operationalizations of SHA, in addition to methodological shortcomings, have challenged interpretation and comparison of results between studies. Well-targeted preventive measures are needed, hence increased knowledge about prevalence, risk factors, and consequences has been requested. Knowledge about the prevalence of SHA victimization and SHA revictimization in settings where the adolescents are currently active is important for highlighting the magnitude of the problem for policymakers and researchers, underlining the need for more research and interventions to prevent SHA. In addition, knowledge about factors that may increase the risk of SHA victimization, and awareness about report- and support resources in school is necessary for future development of well-targeted prevention programs.

Objectives: The main aim of the Ph.D.-study was to examine the prevalence and magnitude of SHA among adolescent elite athletes, recreational athletes, and reference students in different social settings in Norway. The specific aims for paper I were to examine the 12-month prevalence and 12-month prospective change in SHA victimization, and identify the perpetrators of SHA. In paper II, the aims were to examine the prevalence of SHA revictimization and risk factors for SHA victimization. The aims for paper III were to examine awareness about report- and support mechanisms in school, and disclosure of SHA experiences.

Methods: A prospective cohort study was conducted in Norway, including adolescent elite athletes and recreational athletes attending sport high schools (n = 26), and reference students attending non-sport high schools (n = 6). The sample sizes were n = 919 in paper I, n = 1139 in paper II and n = 1200 in paper III. The gender distribution was 49.9% boys, 49.8% girls, and four participants reported non-binary gender. The participants responded to an online questionnaire in 12th grade (T1, mean age: 17.1 years) and one year later in 13th grade (T2). Experiences of verbal, non-verbal, and physical SHA were measured by 13 items. Leaders and coaches (n = 249) at the participating schools responded to a different version of the questionnaire.

Results: Paper I: The total 12-months prevalence of reported SHA was 38.6% at T1 and 35.1% at T2, with a significant decrease in the school and sport setting from T1 to T2. Girls reported more SHA than boys. The prevalence of SHA was lower among elite athletes compared with recreational athletes and reference students. Verbal- and non-verbal SH was more frequently reported than physical SHA, and SHA occurred more often in free time settings compared to sport and school settings. Peers were most frequently reported as perpetrators, followed by “others”, and trainers/teachers/health personnel. Paper II: Half of the adolescents who reported lifetime experience of SHA at T1 also reported revictimization at T2. The prevalence of SHA revictimization was higher among girls than boys, and lower among elite athletes compared with recreational athletes and reference students. The combination of being a girl with high level of symptoms of eating disorders and other psychological health problems (measured at T1) was associated with reporting subsequent SHA victimization at T2. Paper III: One in ten adolescents in total were aware of reporting systems in their school and one in three were aware of support mechanisms. Half of the coaches and nearly all the leaders reported to know these resources. One in five of the adolescents who reported lifetime experience of SHA had disclosed to someone, mostly to peers and family members. The rate of disclosure was lower in boys compared with girls, and lower among the elite- and recreational athletes compared with the reference students. There was negative change in awareness of support mechanisms and rate of disclosure from T1 to T2.

Conclusions: A high prevalence of SHA victimization and revictimization among adolescent elite athletes, recreational athletes, and reference students, combined with a low rate of disclosure, calls for well-targeted preventive measures. Attention should be directed towards handling symptoms of eating disorders and other psychological health problems in prevention of SHA for girls. Further examination of mental health factors for boys, alongside a history of SHA, should be examined as possible risk factors for subsequent SHA victimization. To lower barriers for help-seeking, increased institutional effort is needed to increase information about available report- and support resources, and advance the relevance of use for adolescents.